/*******************************************************************************
* Copyright (c) 2010 Haifeng Li
*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*******************************************************************************/
package smile.regression;
import java.io.Serializable;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.List;
import java.util.PriorityQueue;
import java.util.concurrent.Callable;
import smile.data.Attribute;
import smile.data.NominalAttribute;
import smile.data.NumericAttribute;
import smile.math.Math;
import smile.sort.QuickSort;
import smile.util.MulticoreExecutor;
/**
* Decision tree for regression. A decision tree can be learned by
* splitting the training set into subsets based on an attribute value
* test. This process is repeated on each derived subset in a recursive
* manner called recursive partitioning.
* <p>
* Classification and Regression Tree techniques have a number of advantages
* over many of those alternative techniques.
* <dl>
* <dt>Simple to understand and interpret.</dt>
* <dd>In most cases, the interpretation of results summarized in a tree is
* very simple. This simplicity is useful not only for purposes of rapid
* classification of new observations, but can also often yield a much simpler
* "model" for explaining why observations are classified or predicted in a
* particular manner.</dd>
* <dt>Able to handle both numerical and categorical data.</dt>
* <dd>Other techniques are usually specialized in analyzing datasets that
* have only one type of variable. </dd>
* <dt>Tree methods are nonparametric and nonlinear.</dt>
* <dd>The final results of using tree methods for classification or regression
* can be summarized in a series of (usually few) logical if-then conditions
* (tree nodes). Therefore, there is no implicit assumption that the underlying
* relationships between the predictor variables and the dependent variable
* are linear, follow some specific non-linear link function, or that they
* are even monotonic in nature. Thus, tree methods are particularly well
* suited for data mining tasks, where there is often little a priori
* knowledge nor any coherent set of theories or predictions regarding which
* variables are related and how. In those types of data analytics, tree
* methods can often reveal simple relationships between just a few variables
* that could have easily gone unnoticed using other analytic techniques.</dd>
* </dl>
* One major problem with classification and regression trees is their high
* variance. Often a small change in the data can result in a very different
* series of splits, making interpretation somewhat precarious. Besides,
* decision-tree learners can create over-complex trees that cause over-fitting.
* Mechanisms such as pruning are necessary to avoid this problem.
* Another limitation of trees is the lack of smoothness of the prediction
* surface.
* <p>
* Some techniques such as bagging, boosting, and random forest use more than
* one decision tree for their analysis.
*
* @see GradientTreeBoost
* @see RandomForest
*
* @author Haifeng Li
*/
public class RegressionTree implements Regression<double[]>, Serializable {
private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
/**
* The attributes of independent variable.
*/
private Attribute[] attributes;
/**
* Variable importance. Every time a split of a node is made on variable
* the impurity criterion for the two descendent nodes is less than the
* parent node. Adding up the decreases for each individual variable
* over the tree gives a simple measure of variable importance.
*/
private double[] importance;
/**
* The root of the regression tree
*/
private Node root;
/**
* The number of instances in a node below which the tree will
* not split, setting nodeSize = 5 generally gives good results.
*/
private int nodeSize = 5;
/**
* The maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
private int maxNodes = 6;
/**
* The number of input variables to be used to determine the decision
* at a node of the tree.
*/
private int mtry;
/**
* The number of binary features.
*/
private int numFeatures;
/**
* The index of training values in ascending order. Note that only numeric
* attributes will be sorted.
*/
private transient int[][] order;
/**
* Trainer for regression tree.
*/
public static class Trainer extends RegressionTrainer<double[]> {
/**
* The minimum size of leaf nodes.
*/
private int nodeSize = 1;
/**
* The maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
private int maxNodes = 100;
/**
* The number of sparse binary features.
*/
private int numFeatures = -1;
/**
* Constructor.
*
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public Trainer(int maxNodes) {
if (maxNodes < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid maximum number of leaf nodes: " + maxNodes);
}
this.maxNodes = maxNodes;
}
/**
* Constructor.
*
* @param attributes the attributes of independent variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public Trainer(Attribute[] attributes, int maxNodes) {
super(attributes);
if (maxNodes < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid maximum number of leaf nodes: " + maxNodes);
}
this.maxNodes = maxNodes;
}
/**
* Constructor.
*
* @param numFeatures the number of features.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public Trainer(int numFeatures, int maxNodes) {
if (numFeatures <= 0) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid number of sparse binary features: " + numFeatures);
}
if (maxNodes < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid maximum number of leaf nodes: " + maxNodes);
}
this.numFeatures = numFeatures;
this.maxNodes = maxNodes;
}
/**
* Sets the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public Trainer setMaxNodes(int maxNodes) {
if (maxNodes < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid maximum number of leaf nodes: " + maxNodes);
}
this.maxNodes = maxNodes;
return this;
}
/**
* Sets the minimum size of leaf nodes.
* @param nodeSize the minimum size of leaf nodes..
*/
public Trainer setNodeSize(int nodeSize) {
if (nodeSize < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid minimum size of leaf nodes: " + nodeSize);
}
this.nodeSize = nodeSize;
return this;
}
@Override
public RegressionTree train(double[][] x, double[] y) {
return new RegressionTree(attributes, x, y, maxNodes, nodeSize);
}
public RegressionTree train(int[][] x, double[] y) {
if (numFeatures <= 0) {
return new RegressionTree(Math.max(x) + 1, x, y, maxNodes, nodeSize);
} else {
return new RegressionTree(numFeatures, x, y, maxNodes, nodeSize);
}
}
}
/**
* An interface to calculate node output. Note that samples[i] is the
* number of sampling of dataset[i]. 0 means that the datum is not
* included and values of greater than 1 are possible because of
* sampling with replacement.
*/
public interface NodeOutput {
/**
* Calculate the node output.
* @param samples the samples in the node.
* @return the node output
*/
public double calculate(int[] samples);
}
/**
* Regression tree node.
*/
class Node implements Serializable {
/**
* Predicted real value for this node.
*/
double output = 0.0;
/**
* The split feature for this node.
*/
int splitFeature = -1;
/**
* The split value.
*/
double splitValue = Double.NaN;
/**
* Reduction in squared error compared to parent.
*/
double splitScore = 0.0;
/**
* Children node.
*/
Node trueChild;
/**
* Children node.
*/
Node falseChild;
/**
* Predicted output for children node.
*/
double trueChildOutput = 0.0;
/**
* Predicted output for children node.
*/
double falseChildOutput = 0.0;
/**
* Constructor.
*/
public Node(double output) {
this.output = output;
}
/**
* Evaluate the regression tree over an instance.
*/
public double predict(double[] x) {
if (trueChild == null && falseChild == null) {
return output;
} else {
if (attributes[splitFeature].getType() == Attribute.Type.NOMINAL) {
if (Math.equals(x[splitFeature], splitValue)) {
return trueChild.predict(x);
} else {
return falseChild.predict(x);
}
} else if (attributes[splitFeature].getType() == Attribute.Type.NUMERIC) {
if (x[splitFeature] <= splitValue) {
return trueChild.predict(x);
} else {
return falseChild.predict(x);
}
} else {
throw new IllegalStateException("Unsupported attribute type: " + attributes[splitFeature].getType());
}
}
}
/**
* Evaluate the regression tree over an instance.
*/
public double predict(int[] x) {
if (trueChild == null && falseChild == null) {
return output;
} else if (x[splitFeature] == (int) splitValue) {
return trueChild.predict(x);
} else {
return falseChild.predict(x);
}
}
}
/**
* Regression tree node for training purpose.
*/
class TrainNode implements Comparable<TrainNode> {
/**
* The associated regression tree node.
*/
Node node;
/**
* Child node that passes the test.
*/
TrainNode trueChild;
/**
* Child node that fails the test.
*/
TrainNode falseChild;
/**
* Training dataset.
*/
double[][] x;
/**
* Training data response value.
*/
double[] y;
/**
* The samples for training this node. Note that samples[i] is the
* number of sampling of dataset[i]. 0 means that the datum is not
* included and values of greater than 1 are possible because of
* sampling with replacement.
*/
int[] samples;
/**
* Constructor.
*/
public TrainNode(Node node, double[][] x, double[] y, int[] samples) {
this.node = node;
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
this.samples = samples;
}
@Override
public int compareTo(TrainNode a) {
return (int) Math.signum(a.node.splitScore - node.splitScore);
}
/**
* Calculate the node output for leaves.
* @param output the output calculate functor.
*/
public void calculateOutput(NodeOutput output) {
if (node.trueChild == null && node.falseChild == null) {
node.output = output.calculate(samples);
} else {
if (trueChild != null) {
trueChild.calculateOutput(output);
}
if (falseChild != null) {
falseChild.calculateOutput(output);
}
}
}
/**
* Finds the best attribute to split on at the current node. Returns
* true if a split exists to reduce squared error, false otherwise.
*/
public boolean findBestSplit() {
int n = 0;
for (int s : samples) {
n += s;
}
if (n <= nodeSize) {
return false;
}
double sum = node.output * n;
int p = attributes.length;
int[] variables = new int[p];
for (int i = 0; i < p; i++) {
variables[i] = i;
}
// Loop through features and compute the reduction of squared error,
// which is trueCount * trueMean^2 + falseCount * falseMean^2 - count * parentMean^2
if (mtry < p) {
Math.permutate(variables);
// Random forest already runs on parallel.
for (int j = 0; j < mtry; j++) {
Node split = findBestSplit(n, sum, variables[j]);
if (split.splitScore > node.splitScore) {
node.splitFeature = split.splitFeature;
node.splitValue = split.splitValue;
node.splitScore = split.splitScore;
node.trueChildOutput = split.trueChildOutput;
node.falseChildOutput = split.falseChildOutput;
}
}
} else {
List<SplitTask> tasks = new ArrayList<>(mtry);
for (int j = 0; j < mtry; j++) {
tasks.add(new SplitTask(n, sum, variables[j]));
}
try {
for (Node split : MulticoreExecutor.run(tasks)) {
if (split.splitScore > node.splitScore) {
node.splitFeature = split.splitFeature;
node.splitValue = split.splitValue;
node.splitScore = split.splitScore;
node.trueChildOutput = split.trueChildOutput;
node.falseChildOutput = split.falseChildOutput;
}
}
} catch (Exception ex) {
for (int j = 0; j < mtry; j++) {
Node split = findBestSplit(n, sum, variables[j]);
if (split.splitScore > node.splitScore) {
node.splitFeature = split.splitFeature;
node.splitValue = split.splitValue;
node.splitScore = split.splitScore;
node.trueChildOutput = split.trueChildOutput;
node.falseChildOutput = split.falseChildOutput;
}
}
}
}
return (node.splitFeature != -1);
}
/**
* Task to find the best split cutoff for attribute j at the current node.
*/
class SplitTask implements Callable<Node> {
/**
* The number instances in this node.
*/
int n;
/**
* The sum of responses of this node.
*/
double sum;
/**
* The index of variables for this task.
*/
int j;
SplitTask(int n, double sum, int j) {
this.n = n;
this.sum = sum;
this.j = j;
}
@Override
public Node call() {
return findBestSplit(n, sum, j);
}
}
/**
* Finds the best split cutoff for attribute j at the current node.
* @param n the number instances in this node.
* @param j the attribute to split on.
*/
public Node findBestSplit(int n, double sum, int j) {
Node split = new Node(0.0);
if (attributes[j].getType() == Attribute.Type.NOMINAL) {
int m = ((NominalAttribute) attributes[j]).size();
double[] trueSum = new double[m];
int[] trueCount = new int[m];
for (int i = 0; i < x.length; i++) {
if (samples[i] > 0) {
double target = samples[i] * y[i];
// For each true feature of this datum increment the
// sufficient statistics for the "true" branch to evaluate
// splitting on this feature.
int index = (int) x[i][j];
trueSum[index] += target;
trueCount[index] += samples[i];
}
}
for (int k = 0; k < m; k++) {
double tc = (double) trueCount[k];
double fc = n - tc;
// If either side is empty, skip this feature.
if (tc < nodeSize || fc < nodeSize) {
continue;
}
// compute penalized means
double trueMean = trueSum[k] / tc;
double falseMean = (sum - trueSum[k]) / fc;
double gain = (tc * trueMean * trueMean + fc * falseMean * falseMean) - n * split.output * split.output;
if (gain > split.splitScore) {
// new best split
split.splitFeature = j;
split.splitValue = k;
split.splitScore = gain;
split.trueChildOutput = trueMean;
split.falseChildOutput = falseMean;
}
}
} else if (attributes[j].getType() == Attribute.Type.NUMERIC) {
double trueSum = 0.0;
int trueCount = 0;
double prevx = Double.NaN;
for (int i : order[j]) {
if (samples[i] > 0) {
if (Double.isNaN(prevx) || x[i][j] == prevx) {
prevx = x[i][j];
trueSum += samples[i] * y[i];
trueCount += samples[i];
continue;
}
double falseCount = n - trueCount;
// If either side is empty, skip this feature.
if (trueCount < nodeSize || falseCount < nodeSize) {
prevx = x[i][j];
trueSum += samples[i] * y[i];
trueCount += samples[i];
continue;
}
// compute penalized means
double trueMean = trueSum / trueCount;
double falseMean = (sum - trueSum) / falseCount;
// The gain is actually -(reduction in squared error) for
// sorting in priority queue, which treats smaller number with
// higher priority.
double gain = (trueCount * trueMean * trueMean + falseCount * falseMean * falseMean) - n * split.output * split.output;
if (gain > split.splitScore) {
// new best split
split.splitFeature = j;
split.splitValue = (x[i][j] + prevx) / 2;
split.splitScore = gain;
split.trueChildOutput = trueMean;
split.falseChildOutput = falseMean;
}
prevx = x[i][j];
trueSum += samples[i] * y[i];
trueCount += samples[i];
}
}
} else {
throw new IllegalStateException("Unsupported attribute type: " + attributes[j].getType());
}
return split;
}
/**
* Split the node into two children nodes. Returns true if split success.
*/
public boolean split(PriorityQueue<TrainNode> nextSplits) {
if (node.splitFeature < 0) {
throw new IllegalStateException("Split a node with invalid feature.");
}
int n = x.length;
int tc = 0;
int fc = 0;
int[] trueSamples = new int[n];
//int[] falseSamples = new int[n];
if (attributes[node.splitFeature].getType() == Attribute.Type.NOMINAL) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (samples[i] > 0) {
if (Math.equals(x[i][node.splitFeature], node.splitValue)) {
trueSamples[i] = samples[i];
tc += trueSamples[i];
samples[i] = 0;
} else {
//falseSamples[i] = samples[i];
fc += samples[i];
}
}
}
} else if (attributes[node.splitFeature].getType() == Attribute.Type.NUMERIC) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (samples[i] > 0) {
if (x[i][node.splitFeature] <= node.splitValue) {
trueSamples[i] = samples[i];
tc += trueSamples[i];
samples[i] = 0;
} else {
//falseSamples[i] = samples[i];
fc += samples[i];
}
}
}
} else {
throw new IllegalStateException("Unsupported attribute type: " + attributes[node.splitFeature].getType());
}
if (tc < nodeSize || fc < nodeSize) {
node.splitFeature = -1;
node.splitValue = Double.NaN;
node.splitScore = 0.0;
return false;
}
node.trueChild = new Node(node.trueChildOutput);
node.falseChild = new Node(node.falseChildOutput);
trueChild = new TrainNode(node.trueChild, x, y, trueSamples);
if (tc > nodeSize && trueChild.findBestSplit()) {
if (nextSplits != null) {
nextSplits.add(trueChild);
} else {
trueChild.split(null);
}
}
falseChild = new TrainNode(node.falseChild, x, y, samples);
if (fc > nodeSize && falseChild.findBestSplit()) {
if (nextSplits != null) {
nextSplits.add(falseChild);
} else {
falseChild.split(null);
}
}
importance[node.splitFeature] += node.splitScore;
return true;
}
}
/**
* Regression tree training node for sparse binary features.
*/
class SparseBinaryTrainNode implements Comparable<SparseBinaryTrainNode> {
/**
* The associated regression tree node.
*/
Node node;
/**
* Child node that passes the test.
*/
SparseBinaryTrainNode trueChild;
/**
* Child node that fails the test.
*/
SparseBinaryTrainNode falseChild;
/**
* Training dataset.
*/
int[][] x;
/**
* Training data response value.
*/
double[] y;
/**
* The samples for training this node. Note that samples[i] is the
* number of sampling of dataset[i]. 0 means that the datum is not
* included and values of greater than 1 are possible because of
* sampling with replacement.
*/
int[] samples;
/**
* Constructor.
*/
public SparseBinaryTrainNode(Node node, int[][] x, double[] y, int[] samples) {
this.node = node;
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
this.samples = samples;
}
@Override
public int compareTo(SparseBinaryTrainNode a) {
return (int) Math.signum(a.node.splitScore - node.splitScore);
}
/**
* Finds the best attribute to split on at the current node. Returns
* true if a split exists to reduce squared error, false otherwise.
*/
public boolean findBestSplit() {
if (node.trueChild != null || node.falseChild != null) {
throw new IllegalStateException("Split non-leaf node.");
}
int p = numFeatures;
double[] trueSum = new double[p];
int[] trueCount = new int[p];
int[] featureIndex = new int[p];
int n = Math.sum(samples);
double sumX = 0.0;
for (int i = 0; i < x.length; i++) {
if (samples[i] == 0) {
continue;
}
double target = samples[i] * y[i];
sumX += y[i];
// For each true feature of this datum increment the
// sufficient statistics for the "true" branch to evaluate
// splitting on this feature.
for (int j = 0; j < x[i].length; ++j) {
int index = x[i][j];
trueSum[index] += target;
trueCount[index] += samples[i];
featureIndex[index] = j;
}
}
// Loop through features and compute the reduction
// of squared error, which is trueCount * trueMean^2 + falseCount * falseMean^2 - count * parentMean^2
// Initialize the information in the leaf
node.splitScore = 0.0;
node.splitFeature = -1;
node.splitValue = -1;
for (int i = 0; i < p; ++i) {
double tc = (double) trueCount[i];
double fc = n - tc;
// If either side would have fewer than minimum data points, skip this feature.
if (tc < nodeSize || fc < nodeSize) {
continue;
}
// compute penalized means
double trueMean = trueSum[i] / tc;
double falseMean = (sumX - trueSum[i]) / fc;
double gain = (tc * trueMean * trueMean + fc * falseMean * falseMean) - n * node.output * node.output;
if (gain > node.splitScore) {
// new best split
node.splitFeature = featureIndex[i];
node.splitValue = i;
node.splitScore = gain;
node.trueChildOutput = trueMean;
node.falseChildOutput = falseMean;
}
}
return (node.splitFeature != -1);
}
/**
* Split the node into two children nodes.
*/
public void split(PriorityQueue<SparseBinaryTrainNode> nextSplits) {
if (node.splitFeature < 0) {
throw new IllegalStateException("Split a node with invalid feature.");
}
if (node.trueChild != null || node.falseChild != null) {
throw new IllegalStateException("Split non-leaf node.");
}
int n = x.length;
int tc = 0;
int fc = 0;
int[] trueSamples = new int[n];
//int[] falseSamples = new int[n];
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (samples[i] > 0) {
if (x[i][node.splitFeature] == (int) node.splitValue) {
trueSamples[i] = samples[i];
tc += trueSamples[i];
samples[i] = 0;
} else {
//falseSamples[i] = samples[i];
fc += samples[i];
}
}
}
node.trueChild = new Node(node.trueChildOutput);
node.falseChild = new Node(node.falseChildOutput);
trueChild = new SparseBinaryTrainNode(node.trueChild, x, y, trueSamples);
if (tc > nodeSize && trueChild.findBestSplit()) {
if (nextSplits != null) {
nextSplits.add(trueChild);
} else {
trueChild.split(null);
}
}
falseChild = new SparseBinaryTrainNode(node.falseChild, x, y, samples);
if (fc > nodeSize && falseChild.findBestSplit()) {
if (nextSplits != null) {
nextSplits.add(falseChild);
} else {
falseChild.split(null);
}
}
importance[node.splitFeature] += node.splitScore;
}
/**
* Calculate the node output for leaves.
* @param output the output calculate functor.
*/
public void calculateOutput(NodeOutput output) {
if (node.trueChild == null && node.falseChild == null) {
node.output = output.calculate(samples);
} else {
if (trueChild != null) {
trueChild.calculateOutput(output);
}
if (falseChild != null) {
falseChild.calculateOutput(output);
}
}
}
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree with (most) given number of leaves.
* All attributes are assumed to be numeric.
*
* @param x the training instances.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public RegressionTree(double[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes) {
this(null, x, y, maxNodes, 5);
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree with (most) given number of leaves.
* All attributes are assumed to be numeric.
*
* @param x the training instances.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public RegressionTree(double[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes, int nodeSize) {
this(null, x, y, maxNodes, nodeSize);
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree with (most) given number of leaves.
* @param attributes the attribute properties.
* @param x the training instances.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public RegressionTree(Attribute[] attributes, double[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes) {
this(attributes, x, y, maxNodes, 5);
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree with (most) given number of leaves.
* @param attributes the attribute properties.
* @param x the training instances.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public RegressionTree(Attribute[] attributes, double[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes, int nodeSize) {
this(attributes, x, y, maxNodes, nodeSize, x[0].length, null, null, null);
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree for random forest and gradient tree boosting.
* @param attributes the attribute properties.
* @param x the training instances.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
* @param nodeSize the number of instances in a node below which the tree will
* not split, setting nodeSize = 5 generally gives good results.
* @param mtry the number of input variables to pick to split on at each
* node. It seems that p/3 give generally good performance, where p
* is the number of variables.
* @param order the index of training values in ascending order. Note
* that only numeric attributes need be sorted.
* @param samples the sample set of instances for stochastic learning.
* samples[i] should be 0 or 1 to indicate if the instance is used for training.
*/
public RegressionTree(Attribute[] attributes, double[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes, int nodeSize, int mtry, int[][] order, int[] samples, NodeOutput output) {
if (x.length != y.length) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(String.format("The sizes of X and Y don't match: %d != %d", x.length, y.length));
}
if (mtry < 1 || mtry > x[0].length) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid number of variables to split on at a node of the tree: " + mtry);
}
if (maxNodes < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid maximum leaves: " + maxNodes);
}
if (nodeSize < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid minimum size of leaf nodes: " + nodeSize);
}
if (attributes == null) {
int p = x[0].length;
attributes = new Attribute[p];
for (int i = 0; i < p; i++) {
attributes[i] = new NumericAttribute("V" + (i + 1));
}
}
this.attributes = attributes;
this.maxNodes = maxNodes;
this.nodeSize = nodeSize;
this.mtry = mtry;
importance = new double[attributes.length];
if (order != null) {
this.order = order;
} else {
int n = x.length;
int p = x[0].length;
double[] a = new double[n];
this.order = new int[p][];
for (int j = 0; j < p; j++) {
if (attributes[j] instanceof NumericAttribute) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
a[i] = x[i][j];
}
this.order[j] = QuickSort.sort(a);
}
}
}
// Priority queue for best-first tree growing.
PriorityQueue<TrainNode> nextSplits = new PriorityQueue<>();
int n = 0;
double sum = 0.0;
if (samples == null) {
n = y.length;
samples = new int[n];
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
samples[i] = 1;
sum += y[i];
}
} else {
for (int i = 0; i < y.length; i++) {
n += samples[i];
sum += samples[i] * y[i];
}
}
root = new Node(sum / n);
TrainNode trainRoot = new TrainNode(root, x, y, samples);
// Now add splits to the tree until max tree size is reached
if (trainRoot.findBestSplit()) {
nextSplits.add(trainRoot);
}
// Pop best leaf from priority queue, split it, and push
// children nodes into the queue if possible.
for (int leaves = 1; leaves < this.maxNodes; leaves++) {
// parent is the leaf to split
TrainNode node = nextSplits.poll();
if (node == null) {
break;
}
node.split(nextSplits); // Split the parent node into two children nodes
}
if (output != null) {
trainRoot.calculateOutput(output);
}
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree on sparse binary samples.
* @param numFeatures the number of sparse binary features.
* @param x the training instances of sparse binary features.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
*/
public RegressionTree(int numFeatures, int[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes) {
this(numFeatures, x, y, maxNodes, 5);
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree on sparse binary samples.
* @param numFeatures the number of sparse binary features.
* @param x the training instances of sparse binary features.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
* @param nodeSize the number of instances in a node below which the tree will
* not split, setting nodeSize = 5 generally gives good results.
*/
public RegressionTree(int numFeatures, int[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes, int nodeSize) {
this(numFeatures, x, y, maxNodes, nodeSize, null, null);
}
/**
* Constructor. Learns a regression tree on sparse binary samples.
* @param numFeatures the number of sparse binary features.
* @param x the training instances.
* @param y the response variable.
* @param maxNodes the maximum number of leaf nodes in the tree.
* @param nodeSize the number of instances in a node below which the tree will
* not split, setting nodeSize = 5 generally gives good results.
* @param samples the sample set of instances for stochastic learning.
* samples[i] should be 0 or 1 to indicate if the instance is used for training.
*/
public RegressionTree(int numFeatures, int[][] x, double[] y, int maxNodes, int nodeSize, int[] samples, NodeOutput output) {
if (x.length != y.length) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(String.format("The sizes of X and Y don't match: %d != %d", x.length, y.length));
}
if (maxNodes < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid maximum number of leaves: " + maxNodes);
}
if (nodeSize < 2) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid minimum size of leaf nodes: " + nodeSize);
}
this.maxNodes = maxNodes;
this.nodeSize = nodeSize;
this.numFeatures = numFeatures;
this.mtry = numFeatures;
importance = new double[numFeatures];
// Priority queue for best-first tree growing.
PriorityQueue<SparseBinaryTrainNode> nextSplits = new PriorityQueue<>();
int n = 0;
double sum = 0.0;
if (samples == null) {
n = y.length;
samples = new int[n];
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
samples[i] = 1;
sum += y[i];
}
} else {
for (int i = 0; i < y.length; i++) {
n += samples[i];
sum += samples[i] * y[i];
}
}
root = new Node(sum / n);
SparseBinaryTrainNode trainRoot = new SparseBinaryTrainNode(root, x, y, samples);
// Now add splits to the tree until max tree size is reached
if (trainRoot.findBestSplit()) {
nextSplits.add(trainRoot);
}
// Pop best leaf from priority queue, split it, and push
// children nodes into the queue if possible.
for (int leaves = 1; leaves < this.maxNodes; leaves++) {
// parent is the leaf to split
SparseBinaryTrainNode node = nextSplits.poll();
if (node == null) {
break;
}
node.split(nextSplits); // Split the parent node into two children nodes
}
if (output != null) {
trainRoot.calculateOutput(output);
}
}
/**
* Returns the variable importance. Every time a split of a node is made
* on variable the impurity criterion for the two descendent nodes is less
* than the parent node. Adding up the decreases for each individual
* variable over the tree gives a simple measure of variable importance.
*
* @return the variable importance
*/
public double[] importance() {
return importance;
}
@Override
public double predict(double[] x) {
return root.predict(x);
}
/**
* Predicts the dependent variable of an instance with sparse binary features.
* @param x the instance.
* @return the predicted value of dependent variable.
*/
public double predict(int[] x) {
return root.predict(x);
}
/**
* Returns the maximum depth" of the tree -- the number of
* nodes along the longest path from the root node
* down to the farthest leaf node.*/
public int maxDepth() {
return maxDepth(root);
}
private int maxDepth(Node node) {
if (node == null)
return 0;
// compute the depth of each subtree
int lDepth = maxDepth(node.trueChild);
int rDepth = maxDepth(node.falseChild);
// use the larger one
if (lDepth > rDepth)
return (lDepth + 1);
else
return (rDepth + 1);
}
}